Plans, Programs, and Management Regimes
Plans, programs, and management regimes for coastal and marine ecosystems in Wai‘anae are administered by federal and State of Hawai‘i government agencies. Each of these agencies is required to conform to the local coastal zone management law. Hawai‘i's Coastal Zone Management Program establishes policy and objectives for all activities that occur in or impact the coastal zone from the shoreline to the 12-mile boundary of the territorial sea. Coastal resources, habitat, and fisheries-related laws and regulations are administered by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), U.S. Coast Guard, and two divisions of the Hawai‘i State Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR): the Division of Aquatic Resources and the Division of Boating and Ocean Recreation.
State laws on coastal and marine ecosystems are embodied in the Hawai‘i Revised Statutes and regulations developed by the Division of Aquatic Resources of the DLNR. Protection measures include prohibitions on the collection and sale of marine species, regulations on fishing, and restrictions on access to some marine habitats.
U.S. Coastal Zone Management Act and Hawai‘i Coastal Zone Management Program
The Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 authorized the establishment of the National Coastal Zone Management Program (CZMP), a federal-state partnership dedicated to comprehensive management of the nation's coastal resources. This program assisted Hawai‘i in developing its own coastal zone management program. The CZMP leaves day to day management decisions to Hawai‘i's federally-approved Coastal Zone Management Program (CZM Hawai‘i). CZM Hawai‘i is administratively located in the State Office of Planning, and is advised by the Marine and Coastal Zone Management Advisory Group (MACZMAG), which is composed of state and local agencies and citizens groups. CZM Hawai‘i is built upon the following ten policy areas:
- Protect and provide public access to coastal resources for recreational use
- Protect, preserve and restore historic resources
- Protect, preserve and restore scenic and open space resources
- Protect and minimize adverse impacts of coastal ecosystems
- Provide facilities important to the state's economy that are designed and constructed to minimize adverse impacts
- Reduce hazard to life and property from tsunami, storm waves, stream flooding, erosion, subsidence, and pollution
- Manage development and improve development review process
- Encourage public participation through education and a public advisory body
- Protect beaches for public use and recreation
- Implement the state's Ocean Resources Management Plan
U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy
The Ocean Act of 2000 established a commission to develop a coordinated and comprehensive national ocean policy that will promote several important goals:
- Protection of life and property
- Stewardship of ocean and coastal resources
- Protection of marine environment and prevention of marine pollution
- Enhancement of maritime commerce
- Expansion of human knowledge of the marine environment
- Investments in technologies to promote energy and food security
- Close cooperation among government agencies
- U.S. leadership in ocean and coastal activities
A preliminary report issued by the Commission calls for an ecosystem-based approach to the management of ocean and coastal resources that reflects relationships among all ecosystem components, including human and nonhuman species and the environments in which they live (U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy 2004).
U.S. Coral Reef Task Force
Coral reefs around the world are threatened by a diverse array of human activities that overexploit and degrade these ecosystems. In a National Coral Reef Action Plan (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [NOAA] 2002a), the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force identified six priority areas that federal agencies and states must address to protect coral reefs in the United States: land-based pollution, overfishing, lack of public awareness, recreational overuse, climate change, and coral disease. The State of Hawai‘i, through its governor, is a member of the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force. Hawai‘i is developing local action strategies to address these priority threats to Hawai‘i's coral reefs.
Coral and Live Rock Laws
Hawai‘i state law establishes prohibitions and regulations on the taking or damaging of coral, live rocks, and coral rubble (Hawai‘i Revised Statutes Sections 188-68; 171-58.5; 205A-44). The State of Hawai‘i prohibits the sale of eight species of stony coral:
- Rose Coral or Cauliflower Coral (Pocillopora meandrina)
- Lace Coral (Pocillopora damicornis)
- Giant Finger Coral (Pocillopora eydouxi)
- Yellow-lobed Coral (Porites lobata)
- Finger Coral (Porites compressa)
- Bracket Coral (Montipora verrrucosa)
- Mushroom Coral or Razor Coral (Fungia scutaria)
- Orange Coral or Cup Coral (Tubastraea coccinea)
Marine Life Conservation Districts and Fishery Management Areas
Recreational fishing, aquarium fish collection, snorkeling and SCUBA diving are popular activities in Hawai‘i among residents and tourists; however, overuse and overexploitation of near-shore marine resources adversely affect near-shore fish populations. Marine Life Conservation Districts (MLCD) are designed to conserve and replenish marine resources. MLCDs on O‘ahu are located at Hanauma Bay, Pupukea, and Wai‘kīkī. Currently, no MLCDs are planned for the Wai‘anae coast (State of Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources [DLNR] 2004).
Less restrictive than MLCDs, the state has implemented fishery management areas (FMA) throughout the islands to address habitat damage, overfishing and user conflicts without completely restricting long-established harvest practices. Pōka‘ī Bay is an FMA that permits a variety of traditional practices, including the collection of juvenile mullet (pua) for fishponds and the use of hand nets to catch shrimp. Unattended nets are prohibited (State of Hawaii DLNR 2004).
Coral Reef Research and Monitoring Programs
Long-term monitoring programs for coral reefs have focused on two sites: Kahe Point, as part of the Hawaiian Electric Company's required monitoring for the ocean outfall for thermal discharges; and Wai‘anae outfall, as part of the city and county ocean outfall for sewage. The Kahe Point monitoring program represents the longest-running coral reef data monitoring effort in the state.
The Coral Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program (CRAMP) was initiated in 1997 as a research and monitoring program designed to identify the natural and human factors that contribute to the stability, decline, or recovery of Hawaiian reefs. CRAMP is an integrated statewide program, administered under the University of Hawai‘i in collaboration with DLNR's Division of Aquatic Resources, and includes scientists and managers from the Bishop Museum, Oceanic Institute, and Wai‘kīkī Aquarium. CRAMP has developed a standard methodology for coral reef assessment and monitoring that features a common database and rapid information dissemination system. The information system allows managers and researchers to detect and respond appropriately to environmental threats on Hawaiian reefs. CRAMP monitoring sites along the Wai‘anae coast include Kahe and Pili O Kahe reef areas, and were chosen to complement the Kahe Point site data.
The Hawai‘i Coral Reef Initiative Research Program (HCRI-RP) supports research and monitoring of coral reefs throughout the state. HCRI is jointly managed by DLNR's Division of Aquatic Resources and the University of Hawai‘i through a Management Committee that includes representatives of the University of Hawai‘i, the Division of Aquatic Resources, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Davidson and others 2003).
Recovery Plans for Endangered Marine Species
The "Recovery Plan for U.S. Pacific Populations of the Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas)" (NMFS and USFWS 1998a) delineates reasonable actions that are considered necessary to recover and protect the species. The overall recovery goal is to delist the species from its threatened status under the Endangered Species Act. The recovery plan identifies the following major categories of management interventions:
- Protect and manage turtles on nesting beaches
- Protect and manage nesting habitat
- Protect and manage green turtle populations in the marine habitat
- Protect and manage marine habitat, including foraging habitats
- Ensure proper care in captivity
- Promote international cooperation and collaboration in managing green turtle populations
Current turtle research focuses on:
- Topics of epidemiology of fibropapillomatosis (FP) disease and its impacts on turtle mortality rates
- Trends in nesting at selected sites
- Mexus Pacifico FP collaborative research efforts
- Satellite telemetry of turtles released after being hooked by longline in pelagic waters to assess survival rates
References Cited
Davidson, K., M. Hamnett, and C. Minato (eds). 2003. First Four Years: Hawaii Coral Reef Initiative Research Program, 1998-2002. Social Science Research Institute, University of Hawaii at Manoa. 72 pp. http://www.hawaii.edu/ssri/hcri/files/summary_report.pdf
State of Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR). 2004. Hawaii's Marine Life Conservation Districts. Division of Aquatic Resources (DAR). http://www.hawaii.gov/dlnr/dar/mlcd/
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 1998a. Recovery Plan for U.S. Pacific Populations of the Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas). NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service. http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/prot_res/readingrm/Recoverplans/Pacific_Green_Recovery_Plan.pdf
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 2002a. National Coral Reef Action Strategy: Report to Congress. 118 pp. http://www.coris.noaa.gov/activities/actionstrategy/actionstrategy.html
U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy. 2004. Preliminary Report of the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy-Governors' Draft. http://oceancommission.gov/documents/prelimreport/welcome.html
Related References
Hawaii State Legislature. 2004. Status and Documents 2004: Hawaii Revised Statutes. http://www.capitol.hawaii.gov/site1/docs/docs.asp?press1=docs
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 2002b. Hawaii's Marine Protected Species: A Handbook for Ocean Users. The Laws and Regulations for Federally Protected Marine Resources. 51 pp.
Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center. 2004. Protected Species: Marine Turtle Research Program. http://www.pifsc.noaa.gov/psd/mtrp/turtles.html
U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy. 2000. Information on the Oceans Act of 2000. http://oceancommission.gov/documents/oceanact.html
