ENDNOTES

1. The cause of the insurance crisis is still being debated, but it appears three major factors contributed: insurers' practice of cash flow underwriting; excessive lawsuits and awards; and high administration and litigation costs.

1. Council of State Governments, Suggested State Legislation Vol. 51 Lexington (1992) at 106.

2. See Section 2 "Model State Volunteer Service Act and Commentary (December 1990) as it appears in Appendix B.

3. Id. at §4.

4. Id. at §5.

5. See id. at §3.

6. Id. at §4(b).

7. Id. at §6.

8. Id. at Commentary to §4.

9. Id.

10. Id. at Commentary to §5.

1. Nonprofit Risk Management Center, State Liability Laws for Charitable Organizations and Volunteers (Washington, D.C.: 1995) at 1 (hereinafter cited as State Liability Laws).

2. See Part III for discussion of some of the more unusual provisions.

3. Id.

4. Ala. Code §6-5-336.

5. Id. at Ala. Code §6-5-336(a).

6. See Chapter 2 and Appendix B.

7. Id. at §6-5-336(c)(4).

8. Includes officers, directors, trustees, or members, of the governing body of a qualified entity. Id. at §10-11-2.

9. Id. at §10-11-3.

10. Id. at §10-11-2.

11. Id. at §10-11-3.

12. Id. at §10-11-4.

13. Id. at §10-11-3.

14. Id. at §10-11-2. Officers and directors of any board, authority or commission dealing with pari-mutuel betting, gambling or games of chance are specifically excluded from this provision.

15. Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. §12-981(6).

16. Id. at §12-981(4) (Means a corporation exempt from taxation pursuant to §501(a) of the Internal Revenue Code).

17. Id. at §12-981(5) (Means an organization exempt form taxation pursuant to §501(c) of the Internal Revenue Code).

18. Id. at §12-981(1) (Defined as "a county, municipality, school district, chartered unit or subdivision, a governmental unit or other special district or similar entity or any association, authority, board, commission, division, office, officer, task force or other agency of {the} state).

19. Id. at §12-981(3).

20. Id. at §12-982(A). Gross negligence is defined as "a knowing or reckless indifference to the health or safety of others." Id. at §12-981(2).

21. As defined in Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. §28-1170

22. Id. at §12-982(b).

23. As prescribed by §501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code and §43-1201 of the Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann.

24. Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. at §12-983. The Arizona legislature extended the immunity from civil liability to entities during its 1994 legislative session.

25. See the 1993 version of Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. §12-982(B).

26. Id. at §10-1017(D).

27. Id. at §10-1017(D).

28. Ark. Stat. Ann. §16-6-105.

29. These include, but are not limited to legal, medical, engineering, and accounting services. See id. at §16-6-105(4) for other special rules relating to professional services.

30. Id. at §16-6-104(a).

31. Id. at §16-6-104.

32. Id. at §16-6-103(1).

33. Id. at §16-6-103(2).

34. Id. at §16-6-103(3).

35. Id. at §16-120-102(a).

36. Id. at §16-120-103(a) & (b).

37. Id. at §16-120-103(c).

38. Id. at §16-120-104.

39. Id. at §16-120-102(b).

40. Colo. Rev. Stat. Ann. §13-21-115.5(3). These individuals are protected from civil liability under under Colo. Rev. Stat. Ann.§§ 13-21-115.7 and 13-21-116. See notes 45-48 infra and accompanying text.

41. Id. at §13-21-115.5(4)(a).

42. Id. at §13-21-115.5(5). This provision does not limited the right of a plaintiff to recover from a policy of uninsured or underinsurance motorist coverage available to the plaintiff.

43. Id. at Ann. §13-21-115.5(4)(b).

44. Id. at §13-21-115.5(3).

45. The following are not considered compensation: payment of actual expenses incurred in attending meetings or in carrying out official duties; receipt of meals at meetings; or receipt of gifts up to but not exceeding a total value of $1,000 in any 12 consecutive months. Id. at §13-21-115.7(4).

46. Id. at §13-21-115.7(2).

47. Id. at §13-21-115.7(5).

48. Id. at §13-21-116(2)(b) (specifically includes the board of directors of a public hospital certified as required by state law).

49. Id. at §13-21-116(2.5)(a). "Young persons" means persons 18 years of age or younger. Id. at §13-21-116(2.5)(b). "Person" means an individual, corporation, partnership, or association. Id. at §13-21-116(4).

50. Id. at tit. 10, §8133(b).

51. Id. at tit. 10, §8133(d).

52. Id. at tit. 10, §8133(e).

53. Del. Code Ann. tit. 10, §8133(a)(1).

54. Id. at tit. 10, §8133(a)(2).

55. Id. at tit. 10, §8133(a)(5).

56. Id. at tit. 16, §6836.

57. Id. at tit. 16, §6835(3).

58. Id. at tit. 16, §6835(2).

59. Id. at tit. 16, §6835(4).

60. Id. at tit. 10, §4010(1).

61. Id. at tit. 11, §4011.

62. D.C. Code Ann. §29-599.15 (notes).

63. Id. at §29-599.15(c).

64. Id. at §29-599.15(b).

65. Id. at §29-599.15(d).

66. Id. at §29-599.15(a).

67. Id. at §29-599.16(b).

68. Id. at §29-599.16(a).

69. Id. at §29-599.16(d).

70. Id. at 29-599.16(c).

71. Id. at §29-599.16(e).

72. Fla. Stat. Ann. §768.1355(1).

73. Id. at §768.1355(1).

74. Id. at §768.1355(2).

75. Id. at §617.0834(1). Director means "a person who serves as a director, trustee or member of the governing board of an organization." Id. at §617.0834(2)(b). Officer means "a person who serves as an officer without compensation except reimbursement for actual expenses incurred or to be incurred." Id. at §617.0834(2)(c).

76. Id. at §617.0834(1). For purposes of this provision, the term recklessness means "the acting, or omission to act, in conscious disregard of a risk:
    1. Known, or so obvious that is should have been known, to the officer or director; and

    2. Known to the officer or director, or so obvious it should have been known, to be so great as to make it highly probable that harm would follow from such action or omission." Id. at §617.0834(2)(a).

77. Ga. Code Ann. §51-1-20(a) (compensation does not include reimbursement for "reasonable expenses").

78. Id. at §51-1-20(a). The immunity granted herein is supplemental to any existing immunity. Id. at §51-1-20(c).

79. Id. at §51-1-20.1(b). Applies to any cause of action arising on or after July 1, 1988. Id. at §51-1-20.1(d).

80. Id. at §51-1-20.1(b).

81. Id. at §51-1-20.1(c).

82. Id. at §51-1-20.1(a)(2).

83. Id. at §51-1-20.1(a)(3).

84. Id. at §51-1-20.1(a)(4).

85. Id. at §51-1-20.1(a)(5). "Compensation does not include any gift, any reimbursement for any reasonable expense incurred for the benefit of a nonprofit athletic program, or, in the case of an umpire or referee, a modest honorarium." Id. at §51-1-20.1(a)(1).

86. As these terms are defined in Idaho Code §6-1601(6).

87. Id. at §6-1605(1).

88. Id. at §6-1605(1)(b).

89. See id. at §6-1605(1)(a) & (c) - (g).

90. Ill. Ann. Stat. ch. 805, §105/108.70(a) (excludes reimbursement of actual expenses).

91. Id. at ch. 805, §105/108.70(b).

92. Id. at ch. 805, §105/108.70(c).

93. Excludes any reimbursement for any reasonable expense incurred or, solely in the case of an umpire or referee, a modest honorarium." Id. at §80.1.2(d).

94. Id. at §80.1.1(a).

95. Id. at §80.1.1(b).

96. Id. at §80.1.2(d).

97. Id.

98. In. Code Ann. §§34-4-11.5-1 to -3. Also see note 264 infra and accompanying text.

99. See id. at §34-4-11.8-1 to -7.

100. Id. at §34-4-11.8-1.

101. Id. at §34-4-11.8-7.

102. Iowa Code Ann. §613.19.

103. Id. at §504.101.

104. Id. at §669.24

105. Id. at §670.2.

106. Defined as exempt from federal income taxation pursuant to Internal Revenue Code §501(c). Kan. Stat. Ann. §60- 3601(a)(1).

107. Id. at §60-3601(b).

108. Id. at §60-3601(c).

109. Id. at §60-3601(d).

110. Id. at §60-3601(b).

111. Id. at §60-3606.

112. Kent. Rev. Stat. §411.200.

113. State Liability Laws, supra note 1, at 23, citing Kentucky OAG 91-89.

114. Kent. Rev. Stat. at §273.229.

115. Id. at §273.215.

116. La. Rev. Stat. Ann. §9:2792.3.

117. Id. at §2792.

118. Id. at §2792.1

119. Id. at §2792.4.

120. Id. at §2798 (allows receipt of small stipend or incidental expenses for volunteer services).

121. Maine Rev. Stat. §158-A.2.

122. Id. at §158-A.1A.

123. Md. Cts. & Jud. Pro. Code Ann. at §5-314(c).

124. Id. at §5-314(b).

125. Id. at §5-314(a)(11).

126. Id. at §5-314(a)(2).

127. Id. at §5-312(b).

128. Id. at §5-312(c).

129. Id. at §5-312(d).

130. Id. at §5-312(a)(2)&(3).

131. Id. at §5-312(a)(3).

132. See id. at §5-313.

133. Id. at §5-313(a).

134. Mass. Ann. Laws ch. 231, §85W.

135. Id.

136. Id. Most statutes containing this exception use the broader term "motor vehicle" and some include other modes of transportation as well. Interestingly, a similar provision elsewhere in the Massachusetts statutes uses the term motor vehicle. See note 137 infra & accompanying text.

137. Id. at §85K.

138. Id.

139. Id.

140. Id. at §85V. Compensation excludes reimbursement for reasonable expense actually incurred or, in the case of umpires or referees, a modest honorarium.

141. Id.

142. Id.

143. [B]aseball, softball, football, basketball, soccer and other competitive sport formally recognized as a sport by the United States Olympic Committee as specified by and under the jurisdiction of the Amateur Sports Act ... , the Amateur Athletic Union or the National Collegiate Athletic Association. It shall be limited to a program or that portion of a program that is organized for recreational purposes and whose activities are substantially for such purposes and which is primarily for participants who are eighteen years of age or younger whose nineteenth birthday occurs during the year of participation or the competitive season, whichever is longer; provided, however, that there shall be no age limitation for program operated for the physically handicapped or mentally retarded. Id.

144. See also discussion at note 261 infra & accompanying text.

145. Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. at §450.2209(e).

146. Id. at §450.2209(d). Applies to acts or omissions occurring on or after January 1, 1988.

147. Minn. Stat. Ann. §317A.257, subd. 1.

148. Laws of Minnesota 1994, Ch. 623, Art. 5, subd. 3.

149. Minn. Stat. Ann. at §317A.257, subd. 2.

150. Id. at §317A.257, subd. 3.

151. 1994 Minn. Laws Chapter 623, Art. 3, Sec.2. In adopting the new provision, the Minnesota legislature repealed an earlier statute that excluded coverage for a physician or certified athletic trainer for a sports team or athletic event sponsored by a public or private educational institution. See id. at Art. 5, Sec.3.

152. Minn. Stat. Ann. at §604A.11, subd. 1(a); see 1994 Minn. Laws Chapter 623, Art. 3, Sec.2.

153. Id.

154. Minn. Stat. Ann. at §604A.11, subd. 1(c).

155. Id. at §604A.11, subd. 2.

156. Id.

157. See notes 28-34 supra & accompany text.

158. Miss. Code Ann. §95-9-1(3).

159. Id. at §§95-9-1(2).

160. Id. at §§95-9-1(1).

161. Id. Compensation is undefined in the Arkansas statute.

162. Id. at §95-9-3.

163. Id.

164. See Id. at §§79-11-267 (director) & 70-11275 (officer).

165. See Mo. Ann. Stat. §537.118; see discussion in Chapter 2.

166. Id. at §537.117.

167. Mont. Code Ann. 27-1-732.

168. Defined to means a "nonprofit corporation, association or organization, or a licensed medical facility or facility for the dependent, but does not include a fire department, law enforcement agency or auxiliary thereof." Nev. Rev. Stat. §41.485(3)(b).

169. Id. at §41.485(1).

170. Id. at §41.630.

171. See id. at §§41.480 & 82.221.

172. See N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. §508.17.

173. Id. The statute contains specified language which, if used, constitutes prima facie evidence of approval.

174. Id.

175. Id. at §508.16.

176. See N.J. Stat. Ann. §2A:53A-7.1 (includes entity operating or maintaining a cemetery or place of burial or organized for the purpose of encouraging economic development in a municipality or county).

177. Id. at §2A:62A-6. Sports officials who are accredited by and serve a voluntary association, a conference under the jurisdiction of that association or a public entity are covered under §2A:62A-6.1 and sponsors of nonprofit sports teams are covered under §2A:62A-6.2

178. Id.

179. N.M. Stat. Ann. §41-12-1.

180. Id. at §53-8-25.3. Immunity is limited to action taken at official meetings or actions taken outside meetings if pursuant to §53-8-97(requiring written consent of all director or those entitled to vote).

181. N.C. Gen. Stat. 1-539.11.

182. Id. at 1-539.10. Does not affect standard of care requirement or liability of persons rendering professional services.

183. Id. at §55A-8-60.

184. N.D. Cent. Code §32-03-45. Specifically excludes volunteers with athletic programs who are covered under §32-03-46.

185. Id. at §32-03-46.

186. Id. at §32-03-44.

187. See Ohio Rev. Code Ann. §2305.38(A).

188. Id. at §2305.38(B). See note 124 supra & accompanying text.

189. Id. at §2305.38(C).

190. Id. at §2305.38(D).

191. Pa. Cons. Stat. Ann. §8332.4. (section has no effect on doctrine of assumption of risk or contributory fault).

192. Id. at §8332.2.

193. Id. at §8332.1.

194. Id.

195. See note 143 supra & accompanying text.

196. R.I. Gen. Laws §7-6-9.

197. Id. at §9-1-48 (modest honorarium allowed for umpires, referees or other game officials).

198. S.D. Codified Laws Ann. §§47-23-28 to -32.

199. Id. at 47-23-32.

200. Id. at §47-23-2.1.

201. Tex. Civ. Prac. & Rem. Code Ann. §§84.0001 to .008.

202. Id. at §84.0003(2).

203. Id. at §84.004(b).

204. Id.

205. Id. at §84.004(c).

206. Id. at §84.006 (applies to acts or omissions by the entity or its employees or volunteers).

207. Id. at §84.005 (applies to acts or omissions by employee within course and scope of employment).

208. Id. at §84.007(9).

209. Id. at §84.007.

210. See id. at §§84.003 & 84.007(d).

211. Utah Code Ann. §78-19-2.

212. Id. Provision is not to be construed as placing a duty upon the organization to provide a financially secure source of recovery.

213. Id. at §78-19-1(2) (no bar to action by volunteer against an organization, its officers or others who intentionally or knowingly misrepresent that a financially secure source of recovery does or will exist when source does not or will not exist); see also §63-30-34.

214. Id. at §78-19-1(2).

215. See id. at §78-19-1(3) & (7).

216. Id. at §78-19-1(1).

217. See id. at §63-30b-1(2).

218. Id. at §63-30b-2.

219. Id. at §16-6-107(1).

220. Wis. Stat. Ann. §181.297.(2)

221. Id. at §181.297.(3) (exception not applicable to paragraphs 1 & 2 if proceeding brought by or on behalf of a governmental unit, authority or agency in its capacity as a contractor).

222. Id. at §181.287.

223. Wyo. Stat. §1-23-107.

224. Id. at §1-23-107.

225. Alaska Stat. §09.65.170.

226. Alaska Stat. §09.65.170(b). Nevertheless, Alaska Stat. §10.20.151(d) allows the articles of incorporation to eliminate or limit the personal liability of a director to the corporation for monetary damages for the breach of fiduciary duty as a director. See note 261 infra and accompanying text.

227. Cal. Corp. Code §5047.5(d). Section does not apply if the corporation unlawfully discriminates. Id. at §5047.5(h).

228. Id. at §5047.5(b).

229. Id. at §5047.5(e). However, no cause of action shall be maintained against officer or director if a general liability policy is found to cover the damages.

230. Id. at §5239.

231. Id. at §9247.

232. See notes 230 & 231 supra.

233. Id.

234. Conn. Gen. Stat. Ann. §52-557m.

235. Id. at §52-557n(c).

236. Haw. Rev. Stat. §415B-158.5.

237. Id. at §90-4(4). See also id. at §§662-2 and 662-3.

238. Neb. Rev. Stat. §25-21, 191(1).

239. Id. at §25-21, 192.

240. Id. at §25-21, 191(2).

241. Id. at §25-21, 191(3).

242. Id. at §25-21, 190.

243. N.Y. Not-For-Profit Corp. Law §720(a). Excludes actions brought by the attorney general and, in the case of charitable trusts, an action brought against a trustee by a beneficiary of the trust.

244. Okla. Stat. Ann. tit. 18, §866.

245. Id. at §867.

246. Or. Rev. Stat. §65.369.

247. Id.

248. S.C. Code Ann. §33-31-180 (does not appear to apply to religious corporation if doctrine governing its affairs are inconsistent).

249. Tenn. Code Ann. §48-58-601. Applies to cemetery corporations only upon maintenance of liability insurance.

250. Id. at §29-20-201.

251. Id. at §62-50-201 to 203.

252. Vt. Stat. Ann. tit. 12, §5781.

253. Va. Code Ann. §13.1-870.1 (includes an officer or director of a community association). This section also imposes limits on the liability of compensated officers or directors in proceedings against them for damages and in proceedings by or in the right of a corporation or brought by or on behalf of its members.

254. Id. at §8.01-220.1:1. This section also imposes limits on the liability of compensated officers, directors or trustees.

255. Wash. Rev. Code Ann. §4.24.264(1).

256. Id. at §4.24.264(2).

257. W. Va. Code §55-7C-3.

258. Id. at §55-7C-2(3).

259. Id. at §§55-7C-2(4).

260. Id. at §29-12A-5(b).

261. See e.g., Alaska Stat. §10.20.151(d); Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. §10-1029(A)(8); Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. §273.248 (conflicts of interests); Mass. Ann. Laws ch. 180, §3; Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. §450.2209(c) (includes gross negligence and certain improper uses of corporate assets); Mont. Code Ann §35-2-213 (includes unlawful distribution, loans to directors, and conflicts of interests); N.C. Gen. Stat. §55A-2-02; Or. Rev. Stat. §65.047 (includes unlawful distribution); 15 Pa. Cons. Stat. Ann. §5713 (provided for in bylaws); Wash. Rev. Code Ann. §24.03.025(4)(c).

262. Md. Cts. & Jud. Proc. Code §5-309.3. Accord, Del. Code Ann. tit. 10, §8135.

263. See e.g., Ala. Code §6-5-337; Mont. Code Ann. §21-1-733 (immunity for nonprofit organizations and employees for injuries suffered in rodeo and similar events).

264. See In. Code Ann. §34-4-11.6-1 to -4 (excludes damages relating the negligent operation of a motor vehicle).

265. La Rev. Stat. Ann. §9:27298.2

266. N.H. Stats. §188-F:32C.

267. N.J. Stat. Ann. §2A:53A-7.3.

268. Or. Rev. Stat. §30.480.

269. Wis. Stat. Ann. §187.33. See notes 220 & 221 supra & accompanying text.

1. 281.See Zheng v. Hawaii.

1. 282.Hon. Corp. Counsel Ops. No. 95-7, at 2-3 (hereinafter Counsel Ops.), citing Haw. Rev. Stat. §92F-13 and R.C.H. §11-102.

2. 283.Id. at 3, citing Haw. Rev. Stat. §92F-17. See also R.C.H. §2-27.5(c) (volunteers are not deemed employees when acting for county agency in official capacity).

3. 284.Counsel Ops., at 3.

4. 285.See Haw. Rev. Stat. §90-4(4). The counties are specifically excluded from the definition of "agency" under Haw. Rev. Stat. §90-1.

5. 286.See Volunteer Utilization Program Guidelines, County of Kauai, at 5-6, found in Appendix H.

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LRB Studies